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Yemen Arab Republic

Coordinates: 15°21′17″N 44°12′24″E / 15.35472°N 44.20667°E / 15.35472; 44.20667
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This article is about the historical country that existed from 1962 to 1990. For the present-day sovereign state, see Yemen. For the group that controls most of what was North Yemen, see Houthis.

Yemen Arab Republic
الجمهورية العربية اليمنية (Arabic)
al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘arabiyyah al-Yamaniyyah
1962–1990
Anthem: "Peace to the Land" (1962–1978)
إرادة أمة
'Iiradat 'Uma
"A Nation's Will" (1978–1990)
Location of North Yemen (red)
Location of North Yemen (red)
Capital
and largest city
Sanaa
Official languagesArabic
Religion
Islam (official, predominantly Zaydi Shia and Shafi'i Sunni Islam)
Demonym(s)Yemeni
GovernmentUnitary Nasserist Islamic republic under a military junta[1][2]
President 
• 1962–1967 (first)
Abdullah al-Sallal
• 1967–1974
Abdul Rahman al-Eryani
• 1974–1977
Ibrahim al-Hamdi
• 1977–1978
Ahmad al-Ghashmi
• 1978–1990 (last)
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Prime Minister 
• 1962–1963 (first)
Abdullah al-Sallal
• 1983–1990 (last)
Abdul Aziz Abdul Ghani
LegislatureConsultative Council
Historical eraCold War
26 September 1962
1 December 1970
22 May 1990
Area
• Total
136,000 km2 (53,000 sq mi)
Population
• Estimate
6,100,000 (1981) [3]
CurrencyNorth Yemeni rial
Time zoneUTC+3
Calling code+967
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kingdom of Yemen
Republic of Yemen
Today part ofYemen

The Yemen Arab Republic (YAR; Arabic: الجمهورية العربية اليمنية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘arabiyyah al-Yamaniyyah, French: République arabe du Yémen), commonly known as North Yemen or Yemen (Sanaʽa), was a country that existed from 1962 to 1990 in the northwestern part of what is now Yemen.[4] Its capital was at Sanaa. It united with the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (commonly known as South Yemen) on 22 May 1990 to form the current Republic of Yemen.

History

[edit]

Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen

[edit]
Further information: Kingdom of Yemen

Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 after the First World War, northern Yemen became an independent state as the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen.

Kingdom of Yemen flag in the UN.

The first king of the independent country was Yahya Muhammad Hamid ad-Din. Having declared Yemen's independence from the Ottomans, he proclaimed himself king and And achieved international recognition for the kingdom in 1926. Hamid ad-Din created the kingdom's first regular army. He fought a war with Saudi Arabia and did not recognize his border with the British protectorate of Aden, leading to periodic clashes with British troops. But he focused primarily on consolidating his power and creating a viable central government and appointed his sons to rule various provinces of the kingdom. After almost 30 years of rule (30 October 1918 – 17 February 1948 as a king), he was assassinated in what became known as the Al-Waziri coup. He was succeeded by his son, Ahmad bin Yahya. Like his father, Ahmad was an conservative. Ahmad's ruthless, arbitrary, and inconsistent rule made him the target of coup attempts and frequent assassination attempts, which he narrowly escaped. His enemies ranged from ambitious family members to forward-looking pan-Arabists and Republicans.[4] His abrupt temperament and unpredictable behaviour united and set against him a variety of enemies.[5] The monarchy deliberately exploited the kingdom's highly fragmented tribal society and exploited frequent tribal wars for remaining in power. In foreign policy, his only constant goal was to expel Britain from Aden in order to annex it to his kingdom. But he was not destined to realize his ambitions: he died suddenly in his sleep on September 19, 1962.

Throughout the existence of the absolute monarchy, Yemen was a very underdeveloped state. The complete conservatism of the kings and the unwillingness of the absolute monarchy to modernize in general brought with them the unfortunate but quite logical consequences of an underdeveloped economy and almost complete absence of roads or motor transport. The kingdom was predominantly an agricultural country. The rule of Hamid ed-Din (Although Hamid ad-Din took some steps towards creating a modern state, they were not enough) and especially Ahmad was always autocratic and conservative; Ahmad never brooked suggestions. Yemen remained a semi-feudal state, where is every detail, no matter how insignificant or trivial, had to be approved by the imam, even for a government truck to move in Taiz or for mules to get fodder.[6]

The overthrow of the monarchy and the beginning of a civil war

[edit]
Further information: North Yemen civil war

The Yemeni kingdom's lack of modernity and development led to revolutionary and anti-monarchist ideas in various layers of society. The army also fell victim to dissent. It had many anti-monarchist soldiers and officers with Republican and Nasserist views. In 1962, at least four plots against the king were planned in Yemen, two of which were prepared by military commanders. In December 1961, the Organization of Free Officers (similar to the Nasserist "Free Officers Movement" in Egypt) was created in the Yemeni Kingdom, the purpose of which was to coordinate an anti-monarchist coup.[7]

Abdullah al-Sallal, one of the main organizers of the coup (in military uniform), 1962.
Royalist forces camp, 1962.

But King Ahmad died suddenly, throwing the plotters into disarray.[8] His son Muhammad al-Badr was crowned in his place on September 19. Badr promised to modernize Yemen so that it could “catch up with the caravan of world progress.”[8] We will probably never know whether he had any intention of implementing the promised reforms in the long term, because the military revolutionaries quickly switched its plot from the king to his son. Just a week after Badr's coronation, a coup took place in Sana'a on September 26: Nasserist officers overthrew the monarchy, seized power, and King Badr and his accomplices fled. The new government declared Yemen a republic, abolished slavery,[9] a curfew was imposed and the Yemeni military police was formed.[10] The coup in the north almost coincided (and inspired) with the beginning of the uprising and emergency in the south (in Aden). The first country to recognize the republic was the USSR. Two days after the coup, Abdullah al-Sallal, one of the main organizers of the coup and the first president of the newborn republic, said: "The corrupt monarchy which ruled for a thousand years was a disgrace to the Arab nation and to all humanity. Anyone who tries to restore it is an enemy of God and man!".[11]

Map of North Yemen Civil War in 1967. Black color indicates Republican and Egyptian forces control, red color indicates Royalist forces control.

But Badr not only survived, but was also able to unite a lot of the tribes that supported him in the opposition to Sallal. He received support from other monarchies (such as Saudi Arabia and Jordan), who were afraid of Sallal's revolutionary nasserist regime and feared that the coup would spread to their monarchy too (Al-Sallal opened the Arabian Peninsula Office in 1963 and openly called for the overthrow of the Saudi monarchy and the creation of a unified socialist Arabia).[12] At the same time, Egypt began to support the Sallal's government, supplying them weapons, military advisers and even sending Egyptian forces to fight against royalists later. As a result - this coup d'état marked the beginning of the North Yemen Civil War that pitted republican troops, assisted by the United Arab Republic (Egypt), against Badr's royalist forces, supported by Saudi Arabia and Jordan.

Royalists repel an Egyptian tank attack.

The war was very expensive for Egypt. In 1967, most of the Egyptian troops were withdrawn from North Yemen to join the conflict of the Six-day War. In November 1967, the royalists laid siege to the capital Sana'a, but the Republican resistance was not suppressed and, in February 1968, the siege was lifted. Despite the fact that territorially, most of Yemen remained under the control of al-Badr, most of the big cities remained in the hands of the Republicans and their Egyptian allies. In 1970 Saudi Arabia, the main ally of king Badr, which was a fundamental enemy of the republican regime, suddenly recognized the Yemen Arab Republic, and other countries, such as the United Kingdom, quickly followed its example. For Badr, this was a complete surprise and humiliation, because no one consulted with him, and in fact, at this moment, after 8 years, the Republicans de-facto won a cruel war, which officially ended in December 1, and received recognition of their republic. The civil war further weakened the economy of the newborn republic.

Republic after war, 1970s

[edit]

Although the war was over, its consequences remained. The country's already small infrastructure was badly damaged by fighting, bombing and shelling, the weak economy collapsed, and people became even poorer. The first decade after the war was marked by political instability (as a several coups of dissident officers).

Rebuilding North Yemen’s infrastructure after the civil war proved extremely problematic. Apart from the devastated economy, there were other problems: the military took up to 50 percent of the national budget, amounting to only about £9 million in total, which was hopelessly inadequate in the circumstances. The army was the main social lift, but it (like the government) was riddled with graft and corruption. Controlled by the government, the military's logistics system not only depended on Sana'a's trust in the loyalty of local commanders, but was also susceptible to bribery and corruption. Although various leaders of the Yemen Arab Republic attempted to modernize the state, increase literacy, combat corruption, and rebuild and expand small infrastructure, this did not have the expected impact on the development of the country, which by 1990 remained very underdeveloped, poor, and mired in corruption, largely due to political instability and widespread nepotism.

Back in the 1960s, the Republican government formed the “Ministry of Tribal Affairs” or MTA (arabic: وزارة شؤون القبائل) to deal with tribal issues and resolve tribe conflicts, which spread under the monarchy. The end of North Yemen’s civil war in 1970 produced a coalition government in which elements from the royalist camp joined with the republicans. The first president of the Yemen Arab Republic, Abdullah al-Sallal, was overthrown even before the civil war ended, in 1967, and was succeeded by Abdul Rahman al-Eryani, the first and last civilian leader in northern Yemen.[13] He opposed the Yemeni monarchy, but made moves to reconcile with royalists at the end of the civil war. In 1970, he reached a national peace accord with many supporters of the royal regime and established formal relations with Saudi Arabia, persuading it to recognize new republic. Under his rule, a unification agreement with southern Yemen was reached in 1972 (which formed the basis for unification in 1990), a permanent constitution was adopted, and the first parliamentary elections were held. But Eryani was overthrown in In what became known as the "June 13 Corrective Movement" in 1974 by Military Command Council (MCC) of 7 officers (de-facto Nasserist military junta) and replaced by Colonel Ibrahim al-Hamdi, leader of MCC.[14] Hamdi tried to actively implement reforms within the republic and fought corruption, creating a number of committees to implement them. He tried to unite the tribal country and eliminate inter-tribal conflicts that were active under the monarchy and during the civil war (but at the same time he disbanded MTA, considering it "an obstacle to economic and social development"), reorganized the army, initiated a grand infrastructure plan and sought to educate the population (he allocated 31% of the country's annual budget to education). But also under Hamdi, the role of the army in the political system and public life expanded: the army's intervention in political life returned, and military rule became a feature of the political system.[15] Hamdi also took steps towards rapprochement with the socialist regime in South Yemen and steps towards unity. In February 1977, the "Kataba Agreement" was concluded, which provided for the formation of a Yemeni council of presidents Ibrahim al-Hamdi and Salem Rabi Ali (South Yemeni president) to discuss and resolve all border issues that concern the united Yemeni people and to coordinate efforts in all areas, including foreign policy.[16] In 1977, Hamdi was assassinated, presumably by a Saudi agent (although there is still no exact information).[17] Power was seized by another officer: Ahmad al-Ghashmi (He was also suspected of involvement in Hamdi's assassination[18]). Gashmi was a conservative, unlike his predecessor, and advocated rolling back his Hamdi reforms. He also was known for his closeness to Saudi Arabia (he once called for unity with Saudi Arabia) and opposed Hamdi's attempts to reduce Saudi influence in Yemen. Not much is known about Ghashmi's presidency. However, he did not hold on to power for long: 8 months after coming to power, he was also assassinated in June 24, 1978.

Ali Abdullah Saleh's takeover

[edit]
Main article: Ali Abdullah Saleh

Following the assassination of al-Ghashmi on 24 June 1978, Colonel Ali Abdullah Saleh was appointed a member of the four-member interim presidential council and deputy commander of the General Staff.[19] On 17 July 1978, Saleh was elected by parliament as President of the Yemen Arab Republic, simultaneously serving as Chief of Staff and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces,[20] in theory controlling all power in the country. But in reality his power was unstable. Few people inside or outside the North Yemen expected him to survive for long, and most expected him to suffer the same fate as his two predecessors. He is not was a impressive orator: His first speeches were, in the words of one foreign observer, “extremely painful.” And indeed: In 1978-1979, several military coups and assassination attempts followed, and a coalition of North Yemeni opposition groups, the National Democratic Front (NDF), launched a initially successful years-long rebellion against the central government, with support from Libya and South Yemen. But to the surprise of outside observers, Saleh outlived them all. He managed to defeat his opponents, and after 4 years of rebellion, he was able to suppress the NDF forces in 1982 with the support of the United States and Taiwan. He successfully consolidated his personal power, transforming the government of the Yemen Arab Republic from a military junta to an authoritarian military dictatorship. He ultimately reversed the reformist program begun by al-Hamdi,[21] opening the way to the corruption that had kept him in power. Saleh carried out major purges of military commanders to eliminate dissent and prevent further coups, and while these purges had a corresponding impact on the army's performance in the second war with southern Yemen, they allowed Saleh to remain in power.[22] His bodyguards numbered hundreds of men, mostly from his own Sanhan tribe.

Saleh describing as being neither from a "sheikhly family" nor a "large or important tribe" either, but instead rising to power through "his own means", and creating a patronage system with his family at the top.[23] His seven brothers were placed "in key positions", and later he relied on "sons, daughters, sons-in-law and nephews".[23] Beneath the positions occupied by his extended family, Saleh "relied heavily on the loyalty" of two tribes, his own Sanhan tribe and the Hamdan San'a tribe of his mentor, the former president al-Ghashmi.[23] The New York Times Middle Eastern correspondent Robert F. Worth described Saleh as reaching an understanding with powerful feudal "big sheikhs" to become "part of a Mafia-style spoils system that substituted for governance".[24] Robert Worth accused Saleh of exceeding the aggrandisement of other Middle Eastern strongmen by managing to "rake off tens of billions of dollars in public funds for himself and his family" despite the extreme poverty of his country.[25] Saleh's estimated current wealth of $62 billion made him the 5th richest person in the world in the 21st century.[26] Saleh managed to reconcile most factions (though he, like the monarchy before him, exploited tribal conflicts and played off those who threatened his power), improved relations with Yemen's neighbors, and relaunched various programs of economic and political development and institutionalization. He led Yemen into the oil age. However, citizens felt little benefit from his development programs, since it was mainly the top ranks of the government and the army (including Saleh himself) who got rich. As in the south, Saleh had three titles that were invariably repeated after his first and last name were pronounced: the brother president of the republic, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and secretary of the General People’s Congress.[27]

By the mid-1980s, the North Yemeni state, however weak it was, was much stronger than it had been in the 1970s. Saleh was unable to build a strong economy and equality of all citizens, but he was able to bring stability to the YAR. The Saleh regime was able to establish a strong central government, and strengthen and expand the army and security forces: in 1982, the YAR spent 1,810 million Yemeni rials on the army, which was about three times more than it spent on medicine and education combined (580 million rials that same year), in 1985, the North Yemeni army was able to achieve military parity with the South.[28] At the same time, the majority of the North Yemeni population was illiterate and poor.

Disputes with South Yemen

[edit]

Unlike the early decades of other partitioned states such as East Germany and West Germany, North Korea and South Korea, or North Vietnam and South Vietnam, all of which faced very tense relations or sometimes total wars, the relations between the Yemen Arab Republic and the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) remained relatively friendly throughout most of their existence, although conflicts did arise. Fighting broke out in 1972, and the short-lived conflict was resolved with negotiations, where it was declared unification would eventually occur.

However, these plans were put on hold in 1979, as the PDRY funded Communist rebels in the YAR, and the war was only stopped by an Arab League intervention. The goal of unity was reaffirmed by the northern and southern heads of state during a summit meeting in Kuwait in March 1979.

Successor of Abdul Fattah Ismail, Ali Nasir Muhammad, became the general secretary of the Yemeni Socialist Party in 1980 and took a less interventionist stance toward both North Yemen and neighbouring Oman. A Yemeni council, made up of the two presidents and elected ministers, met every six months to discuss "unity" and a draft constitution of 136 articles was prepared: but the council's meetings did not immediately produce any concrete decisions, and the unpublished text of the constitution is being "studied" by the two presidents.

Unification

[edit]
Main article: Yemeni unification

Against the background of the perestroika in the Soviet Union, political reforms were started in PDRY in the late 1980s too. Political prisoners were released, political parties were formed, and the system of justice was reckoned to be more equitable than in the North. The weakening of the USSR, the main backer of the PDRY, and the reduction of its economic aid pushed South Yemen into new negotiations with the North. In May 1988, the North and South Yemeni governments came to an understanding that considerably reduced tensions. They agreed to renew discussions concerning unification, to establish a joint oil exploration area along their undefined border, to demilitarize the border, and to allow Yemenis unrestricted border passage on the basis of a national identification card.[citation needed]

In 1990, the parties reached a full agreement on joint governing of Yemen. Official Yemeni unification took place on 22 May 1990, with a planned, 30-month process, scheduled for completion in November 1992.[29] The first stamp bearing the inscription "Yemen Republic" was issued in October 1990.[30] Saleh and his system of patrons became the president of a united Yemen. While government ministries proceeded to merge, both currencies remained valid until 11 June 1996. Over time, the government of the united Yemen was able to integrate and unite two very different economic and political systems. However, the two Yemeni armies were not united. The 1994 civil war between the central government and southern Yemeni separatists delayed the completion of the final merger. the former YAR dominated the PDRY in a united Yemen, communists of South Yemen were persecuted, and the south became economically marginalized.[31]

Economy

[edit]

The economies of both North and South Yemen were underdeveloped. However, communist South Yemen was able to provide a basic (and adequate) standard of living for all its citizens: equality, good education, and reduced corruption - all this is about South Yemen.[32] Capitalist North Yemen was able to provide none of these.

North Yemen’s economy has been devastated by civil war, and corruption and nepotism are widespread. Foreign revenues have stagnated. The YAR’s budget deficit is 30 percent of GNP. The military took up to 50 percent of the national budget. Its exports are minimal, accounting for only 1 percent of its imports, and most of the country’s labor force remains rural. Many workers have emigrated from the country: more than a million of Yemen’s 7.5 million people live in other states on the peninsula (mostly Saudi Arabia), and their earnings account for much of the two Yemens’ foreign exchange earnings. (In 1981, the nearly 1.4 million Yemeni workers abroad actually outnumbered the active male labor force of 1.2 million inside the country, according to YAR statistics.) YAR remittances, at about $1 billion a year, represent about 40 percent of GNP. The much-needed labor force from North Yemen is attracted by the higher wages available abroad. Local wages rose sharply, as did land prices, and sectors of the economy became dependent on foreign income or foreign imports, to the detriment of other priorities and local production. Foreign aid amounted to 17 percent of GNP in 1982. Saudi Arabia provides subsidies to northern tribes estimated at $60 million to $80 million a year.[33]

Agriculture

[edit]

Much of the country remains rural, and farming still accounts for about 85 percent of the country's labor force. The peasantry is dominated by tribal loyalties and is deeply suspicious of any government at the center. The decline in food production in North Yemen has left this potentially rich agricultural country dependent on imports for 30 percent of its food supplies. It has received significant aid from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates.[34]

Oil production and export

[edit]

Although oil was an important part of the YAR's exports, the country had not been found to have large reserves. North Yemen has received significant aid from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and the UAE, but is not a candidate for membership in the Gulf Cooperation Council, a group of six Arab oil producers on the peninsula established in May 1981. As one senior government official put it: "There are reasons why we won't be allowed to join. First, we're a republic. Second, we're poor. And third, if they let us in, they'll have to let the Iraqis in, too." Most of YAR's trade is with the West.[35]

Politics and social life

[edit]

Government

[edit]

North Yemen was considered a Nasserist republic with Islam as its official religion. From 1974 to 1978, the country was ruled by a Nasserist military junta (with Hamdi and Ghashmi as presidents), but after Ali Abdullah Saleh came to power, there was a gradual shift from collective rule by a council of military officers to Saleh's personal authoritarian dictatorship (and his patron system).

No political parties are permitted in the YAR. The official government political body is the 1,000-member General People’s Congress, 700 of whom are elected and 300 nominated by the president. It acts as a surrogate ruling party, channeling political action and patronage, and its charter is used for two-hourly political orientation classes in government offices every week. Censorship of the North Yemeni government is extremely tight, and none of the major upheavals of recent years — even the 1979 war with South Yemen — was mentioned at all in the government press.[36]

Foreign relations

[edit]

Compared to South Yemen (which harbored revolutionary communists from all over the region), the North had better relations with many Arab countries. The YAR was cautious in developing relations with the various factions of the Arab world. It criticized the peace initiatives undertaken by Egypt, but did not join the rejectionist camp, which severed all ties with Cairo. It established particularly good relations with Ba'athist Iraq, supporting it from the beginning in the war with Iran and supplying some of its Soviet equipment to the Iraqis in exchange for payment. It received economic aid from Kuwait, the Emirates, and was dependent on Saudi Arabia: for economic reasons, but also because of the influence it wields in North Yemen, Saudi Arabia remains the main reference point for YAR foreign policy. The Saudis have in the past suspended payments to YAR governments when they pursued policies they did not approve of.

One of the most curious aspects of YAR foreign policy is its relationship with the USSR. Although ties weakened in the 1970s, the USSR and YAR never publicly clashed, and the YAR military still relied on Soviet arms (both directly and through intermediaries). In 1979, the Soviet Union pulled off its greatest coup by offering $600 million in cheap arms to YAR, just after the US had offered $380 million to YAR at much higher prices. In October 1981, Ali Abdullah Saleh visited Moscow, where he expressed support for a number of Soviet foreign policy positions on Camp David, the Red Sea, and the arms race. He visited Moscow again in October 1984, when YAR and the USSR signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation. Sana'a apparently decided that this Soviet supply line helped it remain independent of the Saudis, while Moscow placed more importance on preserving this historical connection and maintaining a counterweight to Saudi Arabia. However, most of the YAR's trade is with the West, and the Americans preferred the YAR to the communist PDRY. A significant number of aid programs are underway in the YAR, and the US military is actively training the air force, whose F-4s were formerly flown by Taiwanese pilots.[37]

Living standards and medicine

[edit]

The standard of living in the Yemen Arab Republic is very low. The country is mired in corruption and incompetence. Unlike the south, the north has failed to create a welfare state. In the republic, most of the wealth is concentrated in the hands of the elite or leaders of large tribes, and is not divided equally among the entire population. Rural health programs are negligible.[38]

Education

[edit]

Most North Yemenis have no education. Adult illiteracy is extremely high — over 80 percent (compared to 2 percent illiteracy in south Yemen) — and less than 40 percent of children are in school.[39]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Constitution of the Yemen Arab Republic, 1970". al-bab.com. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  2. ^ Bühler, Konrad G. (8 February 2001). State Succession and Membership in International Organizations. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 9041115536. Retrieved 13 February 2018.
  3. ^ {https://merip.org/1985/02/north-yemen-today/}}
  4. ^ a b The United States extended diplomatic recognition to the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) on 19 December 1962, The Times, 20 December 1962.
  5. ^ Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2000). Yemen: The Unknown Arabia. New York: The Overlook Press. pp. 97, 108.
  6. ^ Dresch, p. 67.
  7. ^ الدكتور سعيد الغليسي , ثورة سبتمبر اليمنية قاداتها وصراعاتها الداخلية و الخارجية 1962م - 1967م , جامعة صنعاء, ص31
  8. ^ a b TIME (5 October 1962). "Yemen: After Ahmad the Devil". TIME. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
  9. ^ Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 352
  10. ^ نشأة الشرطة العسكرية Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine
  11. ^ "Arabia Felix". Time. 26 October 1962. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2008.
  12. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 11 February 2025.
  13. ^ "Abdul-Rahman Al-Eryani, Ex-Yemen President, 89". The New York Times. 17 March 1998. Retrieved 13 February 2009.
  14. ^ "10. Kingdom of Yemen/Yemen Arab Republic/North Yemen (1918-1990)". uca.edu. Retrieved 10 February 2025.
  15. ^ الحركة الإسلامية والنظام السياسي في اليمن، ناصر محمد علي الطويل، 2009
  16. ^ السفارة اليمنية في القاهرة الطريق للوحدة اليمنية Archived 2018-04-02 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ Terrill, W. Andrew (2011). The Conflicts in Yemen and U.s. National Security (Report). Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College.
  18. ^ Metcalfe, Beverley; Mimouni, Fouad (1 January 2011). Leadership Development in the Middle East. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85793-811-4. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  19. ^ "YEMEN – Ali Abdullah Saleh Al-Ahmar". APS Review Downstream Trends. 26 June 2006. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  20. ^ "President Ali Abdullah Saleh Web Site". Presidentsaleh.gov.ye. Archived from the original on 19 December 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
  21. ^ Blumi, Isa. Yemen: What Chaos in Arabia Tells Us About the World, p. 134.
  22. ^ "10. Kingdom of Yemen/Yemen Arab Republic/North Yemen (1918-1990)". uca.edu. Retrieved 10 February 2025.
  23. ^ a b c K. Kadhim, Abbas (2013). Governance in the Middle East and North Africa: A Handbook. Routledge. p. 309. ISBN 9781857435849. Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  24. ^ Worth, Robert F. (2016). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS. Pan Macmillan. p. 105. ISBN 9780374710712. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  25. ^ Worth, Robert F. (2016). A Rage for Order: The Middle East in Turmoil, from Tahrir Square to ISIS. Pan Macmillan. p. 98. ISBN 9780374710712. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
  26. ^ "Yemen ex-leader Saleh 'amassed up to $60bn' - UN probe". BBC News. 25 February 2015. Retrieved 10 February 2025.
  27. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  28. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 11 February 2025.
  29. ^ "2 Yemens Become One, and Celebrate". The New York Times. Reuters. 23 May 1990. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 6 May 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
  30. ^ Scott (2008) "Yemen", Scott 2009 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue Volume 6 (165th edition) Scott Publishing Co., Sidney, Ohio, page 1081. ISBN 978-0-89487-422-2
  31. ^ "Civil war". Yca-sandwell.org.uk. Yemeni Community Association in Sandwell. Archived from the original on 16 June 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2013.
  32. ^ Lackner, Helen (4 July 2017). "The People's Democratic Republic of Yemen: Unique Socialist Experiment in the Arab World at a Time of World Revolutionary Fervour". Interventions. 19 (5): 677–691. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2017.1336465. S2CID 159661566. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
  33. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  34. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  35. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  36. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  37. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  38. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
  39. ^ Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (3 February 1985). "North Yemen Today". MERIP. Retrieved 12 February 2025.
[edit]

15°21′17″N 44°12′24″E / 15.35472°N 44.20667°E / 15.35472; 44.20667

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